Oxford’s article taught me a great deal on learning styles and strategies for the student, and how to teach a useful learning strategy for students based on their individual needs.
When ESL and EFL students learn a foreign language, the students’ individual learning styles and strategies serve as the main factor when assessing how well they learn the language. The different approaches and actions students take often conflict with the instructional methodology of the class. These clashes within the classroom lead to difficulty for students in proper acquisition of the material and interfere with student/teacher interaction!
Oxford cited nine dimensions of learning styles that applied to the learning a second language. Most people are not perfectly categorized into one dimension; instead their categorization is more multidimensional with intersecting categories. Of the nine categories, four are tied closest to learning a second language.
The four categories are sensory preferences, personality types, biological differences and the desired degree of generality.
A. Sensory preferences are divided into four categories. Students that fit into a certain category often have distinct strengths and weaknesses when learning.
1. Visual- Enjoy reading and gain a lot from visual stimulation. Lectures, oral instructions and conversations may be difficult for the student without visual backup.
2. Auditory- Prefer and benefit from lectures, oral instructions and conversations. Written work may cause difficulties.
3. Kinesthetic: Movement oriented.
4. Tactile: Touch oriented.
Both kinesthetic and tactile learners work well with making flashcards, collages and using tangible objects to learn. These types of learners often prefer taking frequent breaks and moving about the classroom as opposed to sitting in a desk all period.
Reid (1987) shows that ESL students display a profound variation in sensory preferences, with preferences varying among cultures. Hispanic students are very auditory while Asian students were visual. Japanese students were the least auditory of all. I have been a visual learner all my life, and after reading this it finally makes sense why I can hardly sit through long lectures!
B. Personality Type: This style aspect is based on the studies of psychologist Carl Jung. Oxford found there was a strong relationship between personality type and second language proficiency in non-English speaking learners. There are four strands of personality types:
1. Introverts vs. Extroverts:
Introverts gain their energy from within themselves. They are often deep thinkers, prefer to keep to themselves and have fewer friendships but on a very deep level. Extroverts on the other hand seek interaction with people and get their drive from the outside world. They have many friendships-some casual, some deep.
These two personality types seem like they would clash but with the help of the teacher they can learn successfully in a classroom together. Rotating participants in class discussion give shyer introverts a chance to share their ideas. Enforcing time limits in the classroom can help keep the extroverts’ enthusiasm at a moderate level and helps everyone buckle down and get to work.
2. Intuitive-Random vs. Sensing-Sequential
Intuitive-Random students have a more abstract way of looking at things. They look at the big picture, look into the far future and conjure up new theories and possibilities. Sensing-Sequential students are more grounded in the present. They prefer a set of rules and guidelines and seek consistency.
To teach a class of students with these views, it is important to offer variety in the classroom. For the sensing-sequential there should be structure and organization in the classroom all while having creative activities in class for the intuitive-random students.
3. Thinking vs. Feeling
Thinking learners want to know the whole truth-no sugarcoating. They do not offer compliments easily and seem detached sometimes. Feeling learners care deeply about others’ feelings are in touch with their sensitive side. They are very open and caring and desire appreciation for their work.
Teachers can help thinking learner students show compassions to their classmates while showing feeling learner students to tone down their expressing of emotions when working with thinking learners.
5. Closure Oriented/Judging vs. Open/Perceiving
Closure oriented students want things finalized and completed on time. They are hard workers that want closure but working constantly towards for closure may affect fluency. Open/perceiving students on the other hand are more relaxed and dislike deadlines. They prefer to learn as much as they can while having the most fun in doing so.
Open learners are sometimes more successful in developing fluency but struggle in a traditional classroom setting. Closure oriented students can help bring order to the classroom. Teachers can assign group projects that incorporate both types of learners so students can benefit from each other’s teaching strategies.
D. Biological Differences
Every student’s learning style is unique, as well as their body’s biology. Biological factors such as biorhythms, sustenance and location play a part in learning and school performance. Biorhythms refer to when a student is most mentally active during the day. Some students are morning people while others or not. Sustenance involves the presence of food or beverage in the classroom. While some students benefit, others may be distracted. Location refers to the nature of the environmental conditions of the classroom: the temperature, lighting, sounds and even the style of desks and chairs. These factors are often disregarded but teachers can make accommodations and compromises when necessary.
Oxford made it clear that second language learners need to make the most of the conditions that are given to them, but also that it was important to offer a wide variety of classrooms that meet the needs of students.
Determining a perfect class based on the student’s learning style is difficult, however the best way to assess this is to give a questionnaire to all students to reveal their individual style preferences. The validity and reliability of these style surveys do vary, but this gives teachers an idea on what works best for students.
I personally am an introverted, intuitive –random, feeling, closure oriented learner who loves to have food in class and avoid early mornings as much as I can. I do wish that my past teachers have taken this into consideration since my learning style clashes hindered me in mastering class material.
The particular approach a student takes when learning a second language is referred to as a learning strategy. A good strategy is one that relates well to the language being taught, fits well with the student’s own learning style and works well with other strategies that can be used. Good learning strategies help the students succeed in academics and become more independent. Teachers can help students scaffold their way beyond their individual learning style and teach them to use good strategies and be able to learn the language under different circumstances. I know I certainly have a hard time with lecture classes, but by going to office hours I learn from my instructor’s useful ways I can go about mastering the material.
Research shows that the correlation between learning strategy use and student achievement and proficiency is profound. The same study also shows that there is no single “rule of thumb” that all language learners can use; it also shows that the use of several useful strategies frequently is most effective for language learners. Researchers and some teachers have joined together to teach learning strategies to students. In ESL and EFL learners a high proficiency rate was correlated with effective strategy instruction. The most effective approach to strategy instruction involves demonstrating when a particular strategy may be useful, evaluating the strategy and how to use the strategy in similar tasks and situations. As future teachers we all must know how to teach learning strategies to our students.
Oxford discovered six main categories for second language learning strategies:
1. Cognitive strategies: The learner is able to manipulate the material through direct ways such as thorough analysis, taking notes, making summaries and outlines, and reorganizing the material based on main points.
2. Metacognitive strategies: This involves organizing materials, arranging a proper workplace and schedule, and evaluating the success of tasks and learning strategies. This was proven by research to have a high effect on cognitive strategy use!
3. Memory-related strategies: This helps second-language learners link concepts together. Memory related strategies such as mnemonic devices, rhyming, using images, and sound and image combinations. The problem with this strategy is that it is only beneficial in the very early stages of learning.
4. Compensatory strategies: This means making guesses in context, using synonyms and using gestures or pauses to compensate not knowing a word in conversational situations. These compensations aid in language learning.
5. Affective strategies: These strategies involve identifying one’s anxiety levels and mood, being open about feelings, rewarding oneself for performing well and using positive self-talk and deep breathing. In some cases this has negative effects when students progress in their proficiency and use other strategies over the affective strategies.
6. Social Strategies: These strategies are asking for clarification if the student does not understand something, asking questions and asking for help from others in general.
It is important for teachers to assign self-reports of the students to assess their use of strategies. Teachers must be sensitive of each of the learners’ needs and remember that no single strategy works.
Task: Choose one of the four dimensions of learning styles and apply a one of the six different ways to teach a second language learning strategy. What kind of classroom set up would you have and what ways would you assign activities and run the classroom?
Also, describe your own particular learning style and describe what strategies you use when learning English or another different language?
I appreciate your feedback and good luck!
-Maya Pasini
Kinesthetic & memory-related strategies: I feel that combining body movement with academic content is, in itself, a memory-related strategy! In an ESL classroom, I would probably use this strategy for vocabulary lessons. For example, the teacher and class could clap, stomp, tap, etc. to create a rhythm that goes along with the vocabulary that they need to remember. That way, when the student is trying to recall this information, the rhythm can act as a trigger. In addition to being a memory strategy, kinesthetic teaching allows students to get out of their seat and take some physical control of their learning with the teacher.
ReplyDeleteI find many of Oxford’s metacognitive strategies to be useful. I think helping students learn to self-monitor and take control of their own learning habits is crucial. I would make my students aware of all the different types of learning strategies and focus on teaching a few specific metacognitive, cognitive and memory strategies, such as efficient note-taking and mnemonic devices. I have used learning strategies from many of the categories that Oxford describes, particularly cognitive strategies like note-taking, reorganizing and summarizing. For language learning, specifically oral language, I often use compensatory strategies such as hand gestures and guessing based on context in a conversation. Even though this doesn’t seem like a very ‘concrete’ strategy, it is very helpful when overcoming anxiety about speaking in a second language environment because you are more focused on understanding the important ideas and not every single word that is said.
ReplyDeleteI think that it is extremely important to accommodate all different types of sensory preferences (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) in any classroom. In my own classroom, I would be sure to provide information in a variety of ways. For example, I would provide notes on an overhead or handout for visual learners, lecture or read aloud for auditory learners, and implement hands-on activities such as role-play and TPR for kinesthetic/tactile learners. It is important for the teacher to be aware of these differences and consider them when choosing activities; however, it is also important for the students to be aware of their own learning preferences. Having this awareness is one type of metacognitive strategy that can help students learn and study in a manner that is compatible with their learning style. This is one strategy that I would teach and recommend to my students. First, I would explain that people learn in many different ways – some people learn best when they see the information, some when they hear the information, some when they move around, and some when they can physically manipulate the material. I would have a handout with a box for each of the different sensory preferences and some activities or study habits that benefit each. For example, in the “visual learner” box, I would list activities such as draw pictures for vocabulary words, underline or highlight readings, use graphic organizers to arrange important information, make outlines, etc. In the “kinesthetic learner” box, I would list activities such as walk around while reviewing information, act out vocabulary words, make your own note cards, play with a stress ball while studying, type out your notes on a keyboard, etc. I would ask my students to think about the activities that help them learn best and try to identify which type of learner they are. I would then tell them that by knowing what type of learner they are, they can make the most of their studying by choosing activities that fit their style. For example, I am a visual learner, so I find it helpful to make flashcards for vocabulary. I even use different-colored flashcards for different verb tenses.
ReplyDeleteI loved your description of your learner type. :-)
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